ࡱ> !#)*"( / 00DArialtiquaman.|x: 0|"DTimes New Roman.|x: 0| DWingdingsRoman.|x: 0|0DBookAntiquaman.|x: 0|@0. @n?" dd@  @@`` ( \X* 5() 5  ()    21 / 0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVW 0AA@8+,3ʚ;ʚ;g4QdQd7x: 0Pppp@ <4dddd 0. 80___PPT10 pp?  %{(Contrastive linguistics: an introductionH   Tadeusz Piotrowski$Contrastive linguistics: what is it?Z  HContrastive linguistics is the systematic comparison of two or more languages, with the aim of describing their similarities and differences, focusing, however, on differences, it is predominantly practical. The term  contrastive linguistics was used for the first time by Whorf in 1941. `P$.P$.\O  -       BasicsVForm lecture attendance required Prerequisites knowledge of basic linguistic notions v&&      Textbooks Fisiak J., LipiDska-Grzegorek M., Zabrocki T., 1978/1987. An Introductory English-Polish Contrastive Grammar Warszawa: PaDstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe Krzeszowski T.P., 1984. Gramatyka angielska dla Polakw. PWN. Warszawa Willim,E. and MaDczak-Wohlfeld,E., 1997. A contrastive approach to problems with English. Krakw: PWN.;4("*1 ;4(  */  ;3 q     0 CL and linguistics,  general linguistics theory of linguistics similarities in languages what is common to all languages in the world comparative linguistics differences between languages typology of languages aiming at classification of all languages in the world synchronic or diachronic-47- 47             CL and comparative linguistics>  tcomparative linguistics contrastive linguistics (CL) differences (and similarities) between two (usually) languages N??         contrastive linguistics$  >differences (usually) between two (usually) languages basis for typological description mainly practical applications translation foreign language teaching and learning bilingual lexicography (dictionaries) why differences? it is assumed that the two languages are similar except for the points described as different 6Z@ZYZZ^ZZ6@Y ^                CL in linguistics, the languages being compared can be related Polish and English or can be unrelated like Polish and Chinese can be from the same historical period Polish and English in the 20th c. or can be from different historical periods English and Polish from the 16th and the 20th c. -ZZZZ'Z"Z,Z2Z-'", 2        CL in linguistics, {usually, however, CL is synchronic comparative linguistics without the historical dimension CL can be theoretical applied t<(!( ((<! A      theoretical CL gives an exhaustive account of the differences and similarities between two or more languages, provides an adequate model for their comparison. V       applied CLon the basis of the theoretical framework provided by theoretical CA/CS, gives the researcher the information necessary to conduct actual contrastive analyses. L          CL: termszcontrastive linguistics (or its methods) is also called contrastive studies contrastive analysis interlingual linguistics&9B9B       the rationale for studying CL6 1who: prospective teachers of a foreign language 8++l   CL and a FL teacher,#why: contrastive studies are (were) used as a means of predicting and/or explaining difficulties of second language learners with a particular mother tongue (Polish) in learning a particular target language (English) however, CL does not explain all problems of foreign language students 8     )       CL and a FL teacher,other hypotheses to explain the problems in learning/teaching a foreign language error analysis performance analysis interlanguage studies language awareness studies these belong to applied linguistics foreign language learnign/teaching methodology `QV$/QV$/        advantages it is suggested that when FL learners are made aware of L1:L2 contrasts this makes it easier for them to learn difficult FL structures L1 interference accounts for some 30% of error.6t0t0      what to compare$early contrastive studies focused on microlinguistic analysis phonology/phonetics grammar (syntax, inflection) lexis today there are also contrastive pragmatics cross-cultural/intercultural pragmatics contrastive rhetoric >7(>7(          '&what to compare$microlinguistic analysis: examples What are the consonant phonemes in languages X and Y? How do they differ in inventory, realization, and distribution? What is the tense system of languages X and Y? What are the verbs of saying in languages X and Y?N#7@b#7@bv       ('what to compare$pragmatic analysis: examples How is cohesion expressed in languages X and Y? How are the speech acts of apologizing and requesting expressed in languages X and Y? How are conversations opened and closed in languages X and Y?&.          this course$Pmainly practical basic theoretical notions a review of microlinguistic contrasts&@@   how to compare?$^what is the basis for comparison? comparison of seemingly related phenomena:  to compare them would be tantamount to putting ten-ton lorries and banana skins in the same class on the grounds that neither ought to be left on footpaths . Carl James (1980). Contrastive Analysis. London: Longman, p :167 NMCM *     how to compare?$object A object B either have something in common and we can compare them or do not have anything in common and we cannot compare them it is arguably difficult to find objects that do not have anything in common but: God and ... Z ZZ"ZZMZZ Z " M R  how to compare?$Vthat something in common is not A is not B is C C is called Tertium Comparationis (TC):0'0   Tertium Comparationis$ what is common in comparison between languages is probably the meaning of a pair of sentences, in other words, their translation equivalence Ta/@z     translation equivalence$  there is one big problem CL studies the systems of two languages translation is not about systems it is about texts this is a basic distinction in linguistics system and text langue and parole competence and performance %!+= ! + =       translation equivalence$  text translation translation of a particular sentence depends on other sentences around it (context) on the function of the whole text its stylistic level the user of the text system translation translation of sentences without any context though the most probable one is usedv)-%v)  %        translation equivalence$  Eng.: I loved you. Pol.: KochaBem kochaBam kochaBom ci ciebie was Panw Panie PaDstwa \Z ZZ@Z @H&(kochaBom: an example 6b ...to chybam ja si przesuwaBo dalej i wchodziBo w krg nastpnego spojrzenia... w miar postpw [mej wdrwki] powikszaBom si i rozpoznawaBom siebie... StanisBaw Lem MaskaK >e   system and text equivalence> fthat is why system equivalence can be called correspondence text equivalence can be called equivalenceL- -    !Equivalence/Tertium Comparationis""&6  cWhat is, in fact, equivalence? we know it is based on a Tertium Comparationis but what use as a TC?    TC: requirements TC should be external to both languages a category based on one language has no counterpart usable for teachers: can be used without extensive theoretical studiesl 4@ 4@ :    !TC in lexical equivalence> 9 concept (word) sign- - - - - - - -referent (object)::h   "TC in lexical equivalence> Either referents or concepts can be treated as TCs. We can reject referents as a TC because, there are no pure references, the very act of distinguishing a referent depends to a large degree on the relevant language Engl. finger Pol. palecD__/   )  \  #TC in lexical equivalence> Concepts can be also rejected. They are not suitably external to any language an English word has an English meaning a Polish word has a Polish meaning They are theoretical constructs depending on a language. Other views.LNJ9 NJ9   %    $ TCTC should be external to the two languages but it should include them language use? situation of use of both languages translation is used in situations when both language are used L+b+b     %! situations F"How meaning X is expressed in L1 and L2? This is a question based on meaning. This question goes from the vague notion of meaning, about which there is little theoretical agreement, goes to two unknowns: L1 and L2 items. We can say that we have to do with three unknown objects here. |Z4ZZZ@Z x4@* !  " 3   0  &" situations How else can one find similarities/contrasts in meaning between two languages? "In the situation S, when an expression X is used by the L2 speaker to speak of Z, what would be the most natural expression Y used by the L1 speaker?". This does not depend on any theoretical assumptions. it includes two known entities (S and X), which are used to reach the third entity (Y). Competent bilinguals can easily answer such questions.OZZZO&,U-;(    . X 5 )# Situations Situations are either typical of L1 or of L2, and linguistic expressions are included in the situations, not vice versa. Situations, in turn, cannot be separated from wider contexts, ultimately from the context of culture. L/L?)/L?)P. K > ( *$Situations-applicabilityLyons (1977). Semantics. CUP. a particular lexeme (or expression, or whole utterance) is applicable (i.e. may be correctly applied) in a certain context, situational or linguistic ...; it is applicable to individuals or properties of individuals. We may use the term 'applicability', in fact, for any relation that can be established between elements or units of language ... and entities in, or aspects of, the world in which the language operates. * b  >  +%Equivalence: other types6 Tomasz Krzeszowski statistical equivalence system equivalence semanto-syntactic equivalence rule equivalence pragmatic equivalence 6pp       ]  0` 3Wo+ff3̙` 33f33̙3` ! <yxG`wglZff` yE[AQpff3k` 31m̙3f` 3333̙3` O~̙Zƺ` ffff̙` ǵfZƺ` fff3fZ̙>?" dd@*?nZd@`K `7@d` n?" dd@   @@``PR    @ ` `0p>>  |   (  T `   "`   67"  F0 \ }`  "}`  67"}` F0 B  s *DjJ"`,$D  0  6l7 "@` 7 PKliknij, aby edytowa styl wzorca tytuBu) )  087 "@` 7 Kliknij, aby edytowa style wzorca tekstu Drugi poziom Trzeci poziom Czwarty poziom Pity poziom*   a  0d7 #" `b@  7 X*   0d7 #" ``@  7 Z*   07 "`` 7 Z* `B  s *D"  H  0޽h ? 3333̙3___PPT10i. 3l+D=' -= @B + Warstwy  + 0 "   (  |T   "  6e@"P  F0 t\   "  <i@"p F0   <l@ "0 `s F0 hB  s *Dp" p \ Pp  "Pp   60r@"pPp F0 B   s *D"p,$ 0  6,u@ "`@ @ PKliknij, aby edytowa styl wzorca tytuBu) )  6w@ " `@  @ VKliknij, aby edytowa styl wzorca podtytuBu, ,  0|@ #" `b? 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